Cognitive Science : Gelenter response to Decartes

• Gelenter describes the consciousness as the term "QUALIA"

• According to Gelenter, "One person or a thing to be conscious is to have Qualia"
• Gelenter divides AI theories into two camps i.e. Cognitivists & Anti-Cognitivists
• Cognitivist believes if human beings have Qualia, than a robot that behaves like human must have Qualia
• There is no any objective way to tell that whether some entity have Qualia or not

Cognitive Science : Marr's Three levek of Information Processing

• It distinguishes three level of explanation for any computational mechanism designed to perform an information processing task
• Primary Objective is to make the study the information processing rigorous and give computational theories in AI solid foundations thus eliminating ad-hoc programming solutions and heuristics when building mechanism to perform certain information tasks

Marr's Three Levels of Information Processing : 

1) Level - 1 (Computational Level) : 

• In this level, It defines What system do and why does it do those things

• It also describes the goal of computation such as why is it appropirate logic of the strategy by which it can be carried out.

2) Level - 2 (Algorithm or Representational level) : 

• in this level, it is described how the computation is performed
• It also describes what are the representation for input and output, what is the algorithm for transformation, how these objects and concepts represented, how much space and memory time is required for learning algorithm

3) Level - 3 (Implementation / Physical Level) :

•  In this level, it represents how a system can represent the algorith physically
• The type of hardware or machines in which algorith is physically embodied

SAD - Information System

Information System :

• It is any organized system for the collection, organization, storage and communication of information
• The system that accepts data as input process it to generate the information and provides the information to the user as output is Information System
• It helps to support devision making co-ordination, control, analysis and visualization in an organization
• It is also the study of complementary networks if hardware and software that people and organization use to collect, filter, process, calculate and distribute data

Components of IS:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. Procedure
5. People
6. Feedback

Types of IS :

1. Transaction processing System

• It is the software system or software/ hardware combination that supports transaction processing
• it server the most elementary day to day activities of an organization
• it supports the operational level of the business that supplies data for higher level management decision
• it handles the data about business transaction. Thus transactions are verified, accepted or rejected
• The goal of TPS is to improve the transaction processing by speeding it up
• Mainly Workers are related to TPS

2. Management information system

• it provides information on managers in the organization
• it focuses on the management of IS to provide efficiency and effectiveness of strategic decision making
• It takes the raw data available through TPS and converts them into a meaningful aggregated from that managers need t fulfill their responsibilities
• It calls for a good understanding on what kind of Information managers require and how managers can use the information in their jobs
• MIS is mainly concerned with Middle level Managers of the organization

3. Decision support system

• It is designed to help organizational decision makers
• It supports for the organizational decision making activities
• DSS is flexible, adaptable and quick
• DSS provides an interactive environment in which decision makers can quickly manipulate data and models of business organizational DSS concentrates of # main component i.e. Databases, models base and user interface
  • Database is an organized collection of data
  • Model base helps to know about the user requirements
  • User Interface helps user to provide their requirements to the system

4. Executive support system

• It is Also known as Executive Information system
• It facilitates and support senior executive information and decision making needs
• It is the specialized form of DSS
• It is intended for top level executive use
• It allows summary over the entire organization
• It is expensive to run and require extensive staffs to support

5. Expert system

• It captures and stores the knowledge if human experts and then imitates human reasoning and decision making processing
• Expert system are also called AI and helps in decision making
• The are composed of two components –
  • Knowledge base is the database for knowledge
  • Inference engine helps for logical judgements

Cogniitve Science : Expert System

Expert System :

1. Expert System is a set of program that manipulates encoded knowledge to solve problem in a specialized domain that normally requires human processing
2. An expert system is an intelligent program that solves problem in a narrow problem area by using high quality specific knowledge rather than algorithm
3. Expert system relays on the knowledge representation which is coded in suitable form for the system to use in its processes

Typical Task for Expert System :

1. Interpolation of data
2. Diagnosis of Malfunction(Medical)
3. Structural analysis ad configuration of complex objects
4. Predicting the future

Expert System Block Diagram : 

1. Knowledge Base : 
• The component that consist the system's knowledge
• A knowledge base consist of both declarative knowledge(facts about something) or procedural knowledge (information about something)
• Rule based production system is the currently used form of knowledge representation
• it stores complex structured and unstructured information used by computer
• it is mainly called as the database of information or knowledge
2. Inference Engine : 
• It directs the implementation of the knowledge and can be used to generate new information and solve problems
• They tends to apply new knowledge and deduced new knowledge
• It decides which heuristic search techniques are used to determine how the rues in the knowledge base are to be applied to the problem
• it directs expert system which rule are to be invoked, accessing the appropriate rules in the knowledge base, executing the rules and determining when an acceptable solution has been found
3. User Interface : 
• This component interfaces with user
• it consist of two basic components
• Interviewer Components : it mainly takes input of raw data from the user to be read into System
• Explanation Components : 
• It mainly gives the solution and also provides the steps of the system reasoning processes

Stages of Expert System : 

1. Identification : 
• Finding the characteristics of a problem
• Determining the exact nature of problem and state the precise goals that indicate exactly how we expect the expert system to contribute to the solution
2. Conceptualization : 
• Finding the primitive concepts and conceptual relations if the problem domain
• in this stage a problem is divided into the series of sub- problem and identified the relation among the pieces of each sub-problem
3. Formalization : 
• In this phase, the problem is connected to its proposed solution by analyzing the relationship deceptive in the conceptualization stage
• in this phase, a knowledge engineer must determine the tools that can greatly expedite the development processes, various techniques of knowledge representation and heuristic search
4. Implementation : 
• Actually formalized concepts are programmed onto the computer that is chosen for  development
• A prototype system is made which can be useful for evaluating progress but hardly a usable system
5. Testing : 
• it provides the opportunity to find the weakness in the structure
• it helps to implement a new extra features too

Features of Expert System : 

1. The program must be usable and useful
2. The program should be educational
3. The program should be able to explain its advice
4. The program should be able to respond the simple question
5. The program should be able to respond new knowledge
6. The program's knowledge should be easily modified.

Cognitive Science : Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence : 

"AI is the part of computer science concerned with designing intelligence computer system that exhibit the characteristics we associate with intelligence in human behavior."

"Giving machines ability to perform tasks normally asssociated with human intelligence"

Goals of AI :  

1. Reasoning
2. knowledge representation
3. Planning
4. Learning
5. Naturals Language Processing 
6. Perception
7. Ability to move and manipulate Objects

Characteristics of AI :

System Thinking Human	System Thinking Rationally
System Acting Humanly	System Acting Rationally

1. System Thinking humanly
   1. Thinking like a person
   2. machines mainly Responses Physiologically and Psychologically
   3. System must represent or demonstrate analogous to human cognition
   4. It can be measured as proved by doing two things :
      1. Through catching out the human thought
      2. Through psychological test
   5. trying t understand how the human mind work
      
      
      
      
2. System Acting Humanly
   1. Acting like a Human
   2. It involves the Turing Test
   3. The test involves an interrogator who interacts with one human and one machine with gives time the interrogator has to find out which of two the human is and which one is machines
   4. If the response of a computer to an unrestricted textual natural language conversation cannot be distinguished from that of a human being that it can be said to be intelligent
   5. it is only concerned with the actions outcome or product of human 's thinking
      
      
3. System Thinking rationally
   1. Modeling thinking as a logical process, where conclusions are drawn based on some type of symbolic logic
   2. Thinking rationally approach to AI uses symbolic logic to capture the laws rational thought as symbols that can be implemented
   3. It is an idealized models of human reasoning
   4. e.g. Ram is a man, All Men are Mortal that Ram is Mortal
      
      
4. System Acting Rationally
   1. Acting rationally means acting to achieve one's goal, given one's beliefs and understanding about the world
   2. Acting rationally with respect to achieve its goals
   3. logical Approaches may be used to help the best Action

Cognitive Science : Turing response to Descartes

According to Descartes, "Mind is a special central human existence, basically reliable. The mind stands apart from and operates independently to the body where as body is best thought of as an automation, which can be compared to machine by men."

Descartes conclude that " we are able to develop a machine like human body but not any machine that thinks like human brain, and if any machine brain tends to act and thinks like a human brain than that thinking will be the result of some sort of calculations which is derived from algorithms or logic."

Turing Test :

Here Turing carried out a hypothetical test to determine the intelligence of machine called as Truing test where a human judge is placed with two computer terminals, one connected to a Machine and another connected to a Human. The judge asks or carry out conversations with each terminals and if is unable to determine which terminal is the machine than that machine is said to have attain similar intelligence to human.

After this test, Turing concluded that "Machines can mimic not only the human form but also in the action, speech and as well as in thinking" and Turing test is the best way to differentiate the machine from human is to engage them in conversion and observe whether it conversed naturally as like human or whether the conversation would be drive by logic.

Cognitive Science : Descartes Mind Body Problem(Dualism)

1. Dualism is defined of state of being dual or having two-fold division.
2. Dualism States that Mind and Body are not identical i.e. totally different from each others however may be opposite from each other.
3. Mind and body problem can be stated as  " What is the basic Relationship between the mental and physical"
4. Dualism defines "Mind is an entirely immortal, non-physical and non-spatial material without any extension on it " where as "Body is defined entirely as a mortal Material Without any thinking in it at all"
5. Dualism says each substance i.e. Mind and Body Each can have only it kind of modes for instance, Mind can only have modes of will,sensation while the Body can only have modes of size, shape, motion and quantity
6. Dualism concludes that "Mind and body are completely different However they act conversely and in order to properly grasp the nature, He/She must use their mind"

Wax Argument

       
        Dualism also defines the limitation of the senses by the war argument Method. Here Descartes takes the piece of war, his senses tells him that it has certain characteristics such as shape, size, etc  When he brings the wax towards the flame, these characteristics changes. However it seems that it is the still same thing .